Parental warmth buffers the negative impact of weaker fronto-striatal connectivity on early adolescents' academic achievement.

In past decades, the positive role of self-control in students' academic success has attracted plenty of scholarly attention. However, fewer studies have examined the link between adolescents' neural development of the inhibitory control system and their academic achievement, especially using a longitudinal approach. Moreover, less is known about the role of parents in this link. Using large-scale longitudinal data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study (N = 9574; mean age = 9.94 years at baseline, SD = .63; 50% girls), the current study took an integrative biopsychosocial approach to explore the longitudinal link between early adolescents' fronto-striatal connectivity and their academic achievement, with attention to the moderating role of parental warmth. Results showed that weaker intrinsic connectivity between the frontoparietal network and the striatum was associated with early adolescents' worse academic achievement over 2 years during early adolescence. Notably, parental warmth moderated the association between fronto-striatal connectivity and academic achievement, such that weaker fronto-striatal connectivity was only predictive of worse academic achievement among early adolescents who experienced low levels of parental warmth. Taken together, the findings demonstrate weaker fronto-striatal connectivity as a risk factor for early adolescents' academic development and highlight parental warmth as a protective factor for academic development among those with weaker connectivity within the inhibitory control system.

Music training is related to late ERP modulation and enhanced performance during Simon task but not Stroop task.

Increasing evidence suggests that music training correlates with better performance in tasks measuring executive function components including inhibitory control, working memory and selective attention. The Stroop and Simon tasks measure responses to congruent and incongruent information reflecting cognitive conflict resolution. However, there are more reports of a music-training advantage in the Simon than the Stroop task. Reports indicate that these tasks may differ in the timing of conflict resolution: the Stroop task might involve early sensory stage conflict resolution, while the Simon task may do so at a later motor output planning stage. We hypothesize that musical experience relates to conflict resolution at the late motor output stage rather than the early sensory stage. Behavioral responses, and event-related potentials (ERP) were measured in participants with varying musical experience during these tasks. It was hypothesized that musical experience correlates with better performance in the Simon but not the Stroop task, reflected in ERP components in the later stage of motor output processing in the Simon task. Participants were classified into high- and low-music training groups based on the Goldsmith Musical Sophistication Index. Electrical brain activity was recorded while they completed visual Stroop and Simon tasks. The high-music training group outperformed the low-music training group on the Simon, but not the Stroop task. Mean amplitude difference (incongruent-congruent trials) was greater for the high-music training group at N100 for midline central (Cz) and posterior (Pz) sites in the Simon task and midline central (Cz) and frontal (Fz) sites in the Stroop task, and at N450 at Cz and Pz in the Simon task. N450 difference peaks occurred earlier in the high-music training group at Pz. Differences between the groups at N100 indicate that music training may be related to better sensory discrimination. These differences were not related to better behavioral performance. Differences in N450 responses between the groups, particularly in regions encompassing the motor and parietal cortices, suggest a role of music training in action selection during response conflict situations. Overall, this supports the hypothesis that music training selectively enhances cognitive conflict resolution during late motor output planning stages.

Mechanisms underlying food devaluation after response inhibition to food.

Multiple studies reveal that a requirement to stop a response to appetitive food stimuli causes devaluation of these stimuli. However, the mechanism underlying food devaluation after stopping is still under debate. The immediate-affect theory suggests that an increase in negative affect after stopping a response is the driving force for food devaluation. A competing value-updating theory presumes that food devaluation after stopping occurs through the need to align behavior with goals. The current study assessed how food devaluation after response inhibition is influenced by negative emotional reactivity and behavior-goal alignment on a trial-by-trial basis. The study included 60 healthy participants who completed a Food-Stop-Signal-Emotion task. Participants categorized high vs. low-calorie food stimuli and stopped their response upon encountering a stop signal. Subsequently, participants made subjective negativity ratings of negative- or neutral-valenced emotional images, and rated their desire to eat the previously depicted food. In contrast to predictions made by the immediate-affect account, food devaluation after stopping was not mediated nor moderated via changes in negative emotional reactivity after stopping. In support of the value-updating account, food devaluation was modulated by behavior-goal alignment, indicated by larger food devaluation after successful vs. failed stopping. In agreement with this theory, the findings indicate that devaluation occurs more strongly when performance aligns with the task requirement. This study sheds light on the mechanism that likely underlies food devaluation after stopping. Implications regarding applied use of food-inhibition trainings are discussed.

Emotion dysregulation and depressive symptoms mediate the association between inhibitory control difficulties and aggressive behaviour in children with ADHD.

Background/objectives: Impulsive aggressive behaviour, although not a core symptom, is often part of the clinical presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Recently, impulsive aggression has been attributed to emotion dysregulation, which is currently conceptualised as a transdiagnostic factor and seems to contribute to the co-occurrence of other problems in ADHD. Thus, this study investigated the presence of impulsive aggressive behaviour and explored whether emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between inhibitory control difficulties and aggressive behaviour in children with ADHD. Because ADHD may act as a risk factor for the development of other conditions, such as internalising problems, we aimed to understand whether depressive symptoms contribute to this relationship. Methods: Seventy-two children were recruited from a hospital and the community, 38 of whom had ADHD and 34 were typically developing (TD). Parents completed the Child Behaviour Checklist, the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function, and the Emotion Regulation Checklist. Simple mediation and serial mediation models were performed to test our hypotheses. Results: Aggressive behaviour was significantly higher in ADHD children compared to TD children. Emotion dysregulation fully mediated the relationship between inhibitory control difficulties and aggressive behaviour in ADHD children. Adding depressive symptoms to the model increased the explained variance in aggressive behaviour. Conclusion: The main result of our study supports the role of emotion dysregulation and depressive symptoms in mediating the relationship between inhibitory control difficulties and impulsive aggressive behaviour in children with ADHD. This highlights that aggressive behaviour is, in part, a result of the inability of the child to appropriately regulate their emotions. Future interventions may be tailored to improve emotion regulation skills to address aggressive behaviour.

Electrophysiological Characteristics of Inhibitive Control for Adults with Different Physiological or Psychological Obesity.

Individuals exhibiting high scores on the fatness subscale of the negative-physical-self scale (NPSS-F) are characterized by heightened preoccupation with body fat accompanied by negative body image perceptions, often leading to excessive dieting behaviors. This demographic constitutes a considerable segment of the populace in China, even among those who are not obese. Nonetheless, scant empirical inquiries have delved into the behavioral and neurophysiological profiles of individuals possessing a healthy body mass index (BMI) alongside elevated NPSS-F scores. This study employed an experimental paradigm integrating go/no-go and one-back tasks to assess inhibitory control and working memory capacities concerning food-related stimuli across three adult cohorts: those with normal weight and low NPSS-F scores, those with normal weight and high NPSS-F scores, and individuals classified as obese. Experimental stimuli comprised high- and low-caloric-food pictures with concurrent electroencephalogram (EEG) and photoplethysmogram (PPG) recordings. Individuals characterized by high NPSS-F scores and normal weight exhibited distinctive electrophysiological responses compared to the other two cohorts, evident in event-related potential (ERP) components, theta and alpha band oscillations, and heart rate variability (HRV) patterns. In essence, the findings underscore alterations in electrophysiological reactivity among individuals possessing high NPSS-F scores and a healthy BMI in the context of food-related stimuli, underscoring the necessity for increased attention to this demographic alongside individuals affected by obesity.

Dissociated contributions of working memory and inhibitory control to children's and adults' analogical reasoning: Analogical strategies matter.

This study investigated whether and how each component of working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) is related to analogical reasoning. Specifically, the mediating roles of analogical strategies were examined and compared across children and adults. In total, 79 children (50 girls; M ± SD = 8.43 ± 0.59 years old) and 77 adults (35 female; 19.44 ± 0.82 years old) were administered tests of WM, IC, and analogical reasoning. In addition, participants' eye movement data during the analogical reasoning task were collected to classify the analogical strategies. The results showed that the semantic-constraint strategy completely mediated the relationship between WM (rather than IC) and analogical reasoning for children. However, for adults, the project-first strategy partially mediated the association between IC (rather than WM) and analogical reasoning. These findings reveal the dissociated roles of WM and IC in analogical reasoning through analogical strategies for children and adults and highlight the importance of analogical strategies.

Prospective associations of prenatal stress with child behavior: Moderation by the early childhood caregiving environment.

Fetal exposure to prenatal stress can increase risk for psychopathology but postnatal caregiving may offset risk. This study tests whether maternal sensitivity and the home environment during early childhood modify associations of prenatal stress with offspring behavior in a sample of 127 mother-child pairs (n = 127). Mothers reported on perceived stress during pregnancy. Maternal sensitivity was rated by coders during a parent-child free play task when children were 4 years old. One year later, mothers reported on the home environment, child internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and children completed an assessment of inhibitory control. As hypothesized, the early childhood caregiving environment modified associations of prenatal stress with child behavior. Specifically, prenatal stress was associated with more internalizing behaviors at lower levels of maternal sensitivity and in home environments that were lower in emotional support and cognitive stimulation, but not at mean or higher levels. Furthermore, prenatal stress was associated with lower inhibitory control only at lower levels of maternal sensitivity, but not at higher levels. Maternal sensitivity and an emotionally supportive and cognitively stimulating home environment in early childhood may be important factors that mitigate risk for mental health problems among children exposed to prenatal stress.

Executive functioning in child victims of sexual abuse: A multi-informant comparative study.

BACKGROUND: Research examining the association between child sexual abuse and executive functions is limited. Yet, exposure to traumatic situations at a young age has been associated with changes in the prefrontal cortex, which hosts executive functions (Wesarg et al., 2020). These functions are crucial for social adaptation, as they make it possible to inhibit maladaptive behavior and respond flexibly to the demands of the environment. As middle childhood is a sensitive period for the development of self-regulatory abilities, exploring executive functioning in school-age children could provide potential intervention targets (Dajani & Uddin, 2015). OBJECTIVE: Using multiple informants, this study compared executive functioning of sexually abused children to that of non-sexually victimized children and examined whether the differences were moderated by sex. METHODS: The sample consisted of 225, 6-to-12 years old children with a history of child sexual abuse (CSA) and 97 children without a history of CSA. Children completed two executive functioning tasks measuring cognitive flexibility and inhibition. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires evaluating children's executive functioning. RESULTS: In comparison to non-abused children, children with a history of CSA displayed greater executive functioning difficulties as assessed by both informant-reported questionnaires and self-completed tasks. Significant interaction effects were found, such as CSA predicting lower inhibition and executive functions at school in boys but not in girls. CONCLUSION: This study is a first step in understanding the association between CSA and executive functioning and offers a clearer picture of the differential impact of sexual trauma according to children's sex.

Motivational context and neurocomputation of stop expectation moderate early attention responses supporting proactive inhibitory control.

Alterations in attention to cues signaling the need for inhibitory control play a significant role in a wide range of psychopathology. However, the degree to which motivational and attentional factors shape the neurocomputations of proactive inhibitory control remains poorly understood. The present study investigated how variation in monetary incentive valence and stake modulate the neurocomputational signatures of proactive inhibitory control. Adults (N = 46) completed a Stop-Signal Task (SST) with concurrent EEG recording under four conditions associated with stop performance feedback: low and high punishment (following unsuccessful stops) and low and high reward (following successful stops). A Bayesian learning model was used to infer individual's probabilistic expectations of the need to stop on each trial: P(stop). Linear mixed effects models were used to examine whether interactions between motivational valence, stake, and P(stop) parameters predicted P1 and N1 attention-related event-related potentials (ERPs) time-locked to the go-onset stimulus. We found that P1 amplitudes increased at higher levels of P(stop) in punished but not rewarded conditions, although P1 amplitude differences between punished and rewarded blocks were maximal on trials when the need to inhibit was least expected. N1 amplitudes were positively related to P(stop) in the high punishment condition (low N1 amplitude), but negatively related to P(stop) in the high reward condition (high N1 amplitude). Critically, high P(stop)-related N1 amplitude to the go-stimulus predicted behavioral stop success during the high reward block, providing evidence for the role of motivationally relevant context and inhibitory control expectations in modulating the proactive allocation of attentional resources that affect inhibitory control. These findings provide novel insights into the neurocomputational mechanisms underlying proactive inhibitory control under valence-dependent motivational contexts, setting the stage for developing motivation-based interventions that boost inhibitory control.

Electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory control in children: Relations with prenatal maternal risk factors and child psychopathology.

Inhibitory control plays an important role in children's cognitive and socioemotional development, including their psychopathology. It has been established that contextual factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and parents' psychopathology are associated with children's inhibitory control. However, the relations between the neural correlates of inhibitory control and contextual factors have been rarely examined in longitudinal studies. In the present study, we used both event-related potential (ERP) components and time-frequency measures of inhibitory control to evaluate the neural pathways between contextual factors, including prenatal SES and maternal psychopathology, and children's behavioral and emotional problems in a large sample of children (N = 560; 51.75% females; Mage = 7.13 years; Rangeage = 4-11 years). Results showed that theta power, which was positively predicted by prenatal SES and was negatively related to children's externalizing problems, mediated the longitudinal and negative relation between them. ERP amplitudes and latencies did not mediate the longitudinal association between prenatal risk factors (i.e., prenatal SES and maternal psychopathology) and children's internalizing and externalizing problems. Our findings increase our understanding of the neural pathways linking early risk factors to children's psychopathology.

The relationships between motor skills and executive functions in children with and without autism spectrum disorder.

To date, information on associations between motor skills and executive functions (EF) in autistic children is limited. The purpose of this study was to compare motor skills and EF performance between autistic children and typically developing (TD) children and to examine the relationships between motor skills and EF in these two groups. Forty-eight autistic children and 48 TD children aged 6 to 12 years were recruited for this study. Motor skills were measured with the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2). EF was assessed with the Stroop Color and Word Test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), and the Test of Attentional Performance: Go/No-go test. Independent sample t-tests were used to compare the BOT-2 scores and EF measures between autistic children and TD children. Pearson product-moment correlation and regressions were conducted to assess the relationships between the BOT-2 scores and the EF measures for each group. Results showed that autistic children scored significantly lower than TD children on all four BOT-2 composite scores and a total motor composite. Autistic children also demonstrated significantly lower levels of performance on all EF measures than TD children. Further, autistic children showed more significant associations between motor skills and EF than TD children, particularly pronounced in the domains of fine manual control and manual coordination to cognitive flexibility, as well as manual coordination and inhibitory control. Continued development of motor skills and EF in autistic children is important. The relationships between motor skills and EF were significant among autistic children, suggesting future research on promoting EF through motor skill interventions in autistic children is required.

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation enhanced emotional inhibitory control via increasing intrinsic prefrontal couplings.

Background: Inhibitory control represents a core executive function that critically facilitates adaptive behavior and survival in an ever-changing environment. Non-invasive transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) has been hypothesized to improve behavioral inhibition performance, however the neurocomputational mechanism of taVNS-induced neuroenhancement remains elusive. Method: In the current study, we investigated the efficacy of taVNS in a sham-controlled between-subject functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) experiment with an emotional face Go/No-Go paradigm in ninety healthy young adults. Results: After a data quality check, eighty-two subjects were included in the final data analysis. Behaviorally, the taVNS improved No-Go response accuracy, together with computational modeling using Hierarchical Bayesian estimation of the Drift Diffusion Model (HDDM) indicating that it specifically reduced the information accumulation rate for Go responses, and this was negatively associated with increased accuracy of No-Go responses. On the neural level, taVNS enhanced engagement of the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) during inhibition of angry expression faces and modulated functional couplings (FCs) within the prefrontal inhibitory control network. Mediation models revealed that taVNS-induced facilitation of inhibitory control was critically mediated by a decreased information accumulation for Go responses and concomitantly enhanced neurofunctional coupling between the inferior and orbital frontal cortex. Discussion: Our findings demonstrate a potential for taVNS to improve emotional inhibitory control via reducing pre-potent responses and enhancing FCs within prefrontal inhibitory control networks, suggesting a promising therapeutic role in treating specific disorders characterized by inhibitory control deficits.

Comparison of Executive Function Skills between Patients with Cerebral Palsy and Typically Developing Populations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Background: Children with CP show deficits in executive function compared to their typically developing peers, based on the majority of the available evidence. However, the magnitude of these deficits, as well as the proportions of the shortfalls in the three main components, have not yet been examined. This is the first meta-analysis to synthesize evidence on the magnitude of differences between patients with cerebral palsy (CP) and typically developing populations in different components of executive function skills (working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility), and thus makes recommendations on which areas of executive functioning are in greatest need of intervention. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search of four databases for studies that measured executive functions in these two groups until 31 August 2023. We calculated the standardized mean difference (Hedges' g), an average effect size overall, and for the three components of executive function skills separately, we used several moderator analyses, including methodological differences between the primary studies. Results: Fifteen articles were included in the meta-analysis. The average mean difference in executive functioning overall was large (g+ = -0.82). Furthermore, large significant differences were found in working memory (g+ = -0.92) and inhibitory control (g+ = -0.82) and a moderate difference was identified in cognitive flexibility (g+ = -0.57). In addition, results of moderator analyses reveal the importance of a rigorous matching of control group participants and CP patients. Conclusions: The results demonstrate a severe impairment in all executive functions among CP patients compared to typically developing peers, which do not decrease over time.

Social complexity affects cognitive abilities but not brain structure in a Poeciliid fish.

Some cognitive abilities are suggested to be the result of a complex social life, allowing individuals to achieve higher fitness through advanced strategies. However, most evidence is correlative. Here, we provide an experimental investigation of how group size and composition affect brain and cognitive development in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata). For 6 months, we reared sexually mature females in one of 3 social treatments: a small conspecific group of 3 guppies, a large heterospecific group of 3 guppies and 3 splash tetras (Copella arnoldi)-a species that co-occurs with the guppy in the wild, and a large conspecific group of 6 guppies. We then tested the guppies' performance in self-control (inhibitory control), operant conditioning (associative learning), and cognitive flexibility (reversal learning) tasks. Using X-ray imaging, we measured their brain size and major brain regions. Larger groups of 6 individuals, both conspecific and heterospecific groups, showed better cognitive flexibility than smaller groups but no difference in self-control and operant conditioning tests. Interestingly, while social manipulation had no significant effect on brain morphology, relatively larger telencephalons were associated with better cognitive flexibility. This suggests alternative mechanisms beyond brain region size enabled greater cognitive flexibility in individuals from larger groups. Although there is no clear evidence for the impact on brain morphology, our research shows that living in larger social groups can enhance cognitive flexibility. This indicates that the social environment plays a role in the cognitive development of guppies.

Dissociation of prepotent response inhibition and interference control in problematic internet use: evidence from the Go/No-Go and Flanker tasks.

BACKGROUND: Problematic Internet Use (PIU), characterized by failures to control the overuse of internet, is associated with a range of functional impairments. However, there is limited research on the specific impact of PIU on inhibitory control functions, particularly in terms of differentiating between prepotent response inhibition and interference control. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to investigate these two components of inhibitory control in individuals with PIU. METHODS: Thirty participants who met the PIU criteria and 30 control participants were included in the present study. All participants completed the Go/No-Go and Flanker tasks, in which internet-related images and words were used as task stimuli. RESULTS: In the Go/No-Go task, all participants exhibited poorer performance in inhibiting internet-related stimuli compared to internet-unrelated stimuli, during the No-Go trials. In the Flanker task, results revealed a three-way interaction of Group, Stimulus type and Congruency. Specifically, in the incongruent condition, participants with PIU exhibited slower responses for internet-unrelated targets compared to internet-related targets, whereas no similar effect was observed among individuals with low internet use. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that difficulties in controlling the interference effect of internet-related information represent a key dysfunction in inhibitory control of PIU.

Two-Hour Nicotine Withdrawal Improves Inhibitory Control Dysfunction in Male Smokers: Evidence from a Smoking-Cued Go/No-Go Task ERP Study.

Purpose: Nicotine withdrawal is a multifaceted physiological and psychological process that can induce a spectrum of mood disturbances. Gaining a more nuanced understanding of how pure nicotine withdrawal influences cognitive control functions may provide valuable insights for the enhancement of smoking cessation programs. This study investigated changes in inhibitory control function in smokers after 2-hour nicotine withdrawal using the event-related potential (ERP) technique. Participants and Methods: 28 nicotine dependence (ND) patients and 28 health controls (HCs) completed a smoking-cued Go/No-go task containing two different types of picture stimuli, smoking-cued and neutral picture stimuli. We analyzed the behavioral and ERP data using a mixed model Repeated Measure Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Results: No-go trials accuracy rate (ACC) at baseline (time 1) was lower in the ND group compared to HCs with smoking-cued stimuli, and No-go trials ACC after 2-hour nicotine withdrawal (time 2) was not lower in the ND group compared to HCs. When confronted with smoking-cued stimuli, the No-go trials ACC was higher in time 2 than in time 1 in the ND group. For the ERP component, the No-go N2 amplitudes in the ND group with smoking-cued stimuli were lower than that of HCs, whereas after 2-hour nicotine withdrawal, the ND group's No-go N2 amplitudes higher than that at time 1, and did not differ from that of HCs. No-go P3 amplitudes were not significantly different between the two groups. Conclusion: Evidenced from ERP data, ND patients have an inhibitory control dysfunction in the face of smoking cues, which is mainly manifested in the early stage of response inhibition rather than in the late stage. Two-hour nicotine withdrawal improves inhibitory control dysfunction in ND patients. The No-go N2 component is an important and sensitive neuroelectrophysiological indicator of inhibitory control function in ND patients.

Childhood adversity is associated with reduced BOLD response in inhibitory control regions amongst preadolescents from the ABCD study.

Adolescence is characterized by dynamic neurodevelopment, which poses opportunities for risk and resilience. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) confer additional risk to the developing brain, where ACEs have been associated with alterations in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) BOLD signaling in brain regions underlying inhibitory control. Socioenvironmental factors like the family environment may amplify or buffer against the neurodevelopmental risks associated with ACEs. Using baseline to Year 2 follow-up data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, the current study examined how ACEs relate to fMRI BOLD signaling during successful inhibition on the Stop Signal Task in regions associated with inhibitory control and examined whether family conflict levels moderated that relationship. Results showed that greater ACEs were associated with reduced BOLD response in the right opercular region of the inferior frontal gyrus and bilaterally in the pre-supplementary motor area, which are key regions underlying inhibitory control. Further, greater BOLD response was correlated with less impulsivity behaviorally, suggesting reduced activation may not be behaviorally adaptive at this age. No significant two or three-way interactions with family conflict levels or time were found. Findings highlight the continued utility of examining the relationship between ACEs and neurodevelopmental outcomes and the importance of intervention/prevention of ACES.

A brief bout of moderate intensity physical activity improves preadolescent children's behavioral inhibition but does not change their energy intake.

Children in rural communities consume more energy-dense foods relative to their urban peers. Identifying effective interventions for improving energy intake patterns are needed to address these geographic disparities. The primary aim of this study was to harness the benefits of physical activity on children's executive functioning to see if these improvements lead to acute changes in eating behaviors. In a randomized crossover design, 91 preadolescent (8-10y; M age = 9.48 ± 0.85; 50.5% female; 85.7% White, 9.9% Multiracial, 9.9% Hispanic) children (86% rural) completed a 20-minute physical activity condition (moderate intensity walking) and time-matched sedentary condition (reading and/or coloring) ~ 14 days apart. Immediately following each condition, participants completed a behavioral inhibition task and then eating behaviors (total energy intake, relative energy intake, snack intake) were measured during a multi-array buffet test meal. After adjusting for period and order effects, body fat (measured via DXA), and depressive symptoms, participants experienced significant small improvements in their behavioral inhibition following the physical activity versus sedentary condition (p = 0.04, Hedge's g = 0.198). Eating behaviors did not vary by condition, nor did improvements in behavioral inhibition function as a mediator (ps > 0.09). Thus, in preadolescent children, small improvements in behavioral inhibition from physical activity do not produce acute improvements in energy intake. Additional research is needed to clarify whether the duration and/or intensity of physical activity sessions would produce different results in this age group, and whether intervention approaches and corresponding mechanisms of change vary by individual factors, like age and degree of food cue responsivity.

Out-of-phase transcranial alternating current stimulation modulates the neurodynamics of inhibitory control.

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is an efficient neuromodulation technique that enhances cognitive function in a non-invasive manner. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we investigated whether tACS with different phase lags (0° and 180°) between the dorsal anterior cingulate and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortices modulated inhibitory control performance during the Stroop task. We found out-of-phase tACS mediated improvements in task performance, which was neurodynamically reflected as putamen, dorsolateral prefrontal, and primary motor cortical activation as well as prefrontal-based top-down functional connectivity. Our observations uncover the neurophysiological bases of tACS-phase-dependent neuromodulation and provide a feasible non-invasive approach to effectively modulate inhibitory control.